1. Mukhtar Y, Galalain A, Yunusa U. A modern overview on diabetes mellitus: a chronic endocrine disorder. Eur J Biol 2020;5:1-14. [DOI:10.47672/ejb.409]

2. Besser RE, Bell KJ, Couper JJ, Ziegler AG, Wherrett DK, Knip M, et al. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2022: stages of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes 2022;23:1175-87. [DOI:10.1111/pedi.13410]

3. Dowarah J, Singh VP. Anti-diabetic drugs: recent approaches and advancements. Bioorg Med Chem 2020;28:115263. [DOI:10.1016/j.bmc.2019.115263]

4. Oyebode O, Orji R. Identifying adverse drug reactions from patient reviews on social media using natural language processing. Health Informatics J 2023;29:14604582221136712. [DOI:10.1177/14604582221136712]

5. Cheraghi J, Nouraee A, Havasi M, Mami S. Barrasi asarat toxic asareh hydroalcoholi Hendavaneh Abujahl (Citrullus colocynthis) bar enzymehaye kabedi va factorhaye kolevi dar mushhaye sahrayi. Jundishapur Sci Med J 2024;23:303-12. [In Persian]

6. Huseini HF, Darvishzadeh F, Heshmat R, Jafariazar Z, Raza M, Larijani B. The clinical investigation of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad fruit in treatment of type II diabetic patients: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res 2009;23:1186-9. [DOI:10.1002/ptr.2754]

7. Najafi S, Ramazani A. Phytochemical analysis of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad and study of its antibacterial activity in vitro. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy 2023;15:1-10.

8. Ghauri AO, Ahmad S, Rehman T. In vitro and in vivo anti-diabetic activity of Citrullus colocynthis pulpy flesh with seeds hydro-ethanolic extract. J Complement Integr Med 2020;17:20180228. [DOI:10.1515/jcim-2018-0228]

9. Drissi F, Lahfa F, Gonzalez T, Peiretti F, Tanti JF, Haddad M, et al. A Citrullus colocynthis fruit extract acutely enhances insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake in adipocytes by increasing PKB phosphorylation. J Ethnopharmacol 2021;270:113772. [DOI:10.1016/j.jep.2020.113772]

10. Eckland DA, Danhof M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2000;108:S234-42. [DOI:10.1055/s-2000-8525]

11. Waugh J, Keating GM, Plosker GL, Easthope S, Robinson DM. Pioglitazone: a review of its use in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 2006;66:85-109. [DOI:10.2165/00003495-200666010-00005]

12. Lenzen S. The mechanisms of alloxan- and streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Diabetologia 2008;51:216-26. [DOI:10.1007/s00125-007-0886-7]

13. Damasceno DC, Netto AO, Iessi IL, Gallego FQ, Corvino SB, Dallaqua B, et al. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes models: pathophysiological mechanisms and fetal outcomes. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:819065. [DOI:10.1155/2014/819065]

14. Salleh NH, Zulkipli IN, Mohd Yasin H, Ja'afar F, Ahmad N, Wan Ahmad WAN, et al. Systematic review of medicinal plants used for treatment of diabetes in human clinical trials: an ASEAN perspective. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2021;2021:5570939. [DOI:10.1155/2021/5570939]

15. Oryan A, Hashemnia M, Hamidi AR, Mohammadalipour A. Effects of hydro-ethanol extract of Citrullus colocynthis on blood glucose levels and pathology of organs in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 2014;4:125-30. [DOI:10.1016/S2222-1808(14)60328-5]

16. Ruchko E, Chernysheva M, Sokolov V, Starinnov Z, Sabirov M, Vasiliev A. β-cell heterogeneity and molecular plasticity in type 2 diabetes: multi-omics perspectives and the role of gut microbiota. Front Cell Dev Biol 2025;13:1698296. [DOI:10.3389/fcell.2025.1698296]

17. Shannon CE, Daniele G, Galindo C, Abdul-Ghani MA, DeFronzo RA, Norton L. Pioglitazone inhibits mitochondrial pyruvate metabolism and glucose production in hepatocytes. FEBS J 2017;284:451-65. [DOI:10.1111/febs.13992]

18. Barghamdi B, Ghorat F, Asadollahi K, Sayehmiri K, Peyghambari R, Abangah G. Therapeutic effects of Citrullus colocynthis fruit in patients with type II diabetes: a clinical trial study. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2016;8:130. [DOI:10.4103/0975-7406.171702]

19. Kumar S, Kumar D, Jusha M, Saroha K, Singh N, Vashishta B. Antidiabetic and antioxidant activities of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. fruits in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;115:384-388.

20. Ebrahimi E, Mohammadzadeh G, Mansouri E, Aberomand M. Effects of hydro-alcoholic leaf extract of Citrullus colocynthis on biochemical factors and histopathological changes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod 2016;11:e33214. [DOI:10.17795/jjnpp-33214]

21. Sakamoto J, Kimura H, Moriyama S, Odaka H, Momose Y, Sugiyama Y, et al. Activation of human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) subtypes by pioglitazone. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000;278:704-11. [DOI:10.1006/bbrc.2000.3868]

22. Halverstadt A, Phares DA, Wilund KR, Goldberg AP, Hagberg JM. Endurance exercise training raises high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and lowers small low-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoprotein independent of body fat phenotypes in older men and women. Metabolism 2007; 56: 444-50. [DOI:10.1016/j.metabol.2006.10.019]

23. Lakshmi B, Sendrayaperumal V, Subramanian S. Beneficial effects of Citrullus colocynthis seeds extract studied in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Int J Pharm Sci 2013;19:47-55.

24. Afshari A, Salimi F, Nowrouzi A, Khalili MB, Bakhtiyari S, Hassanzadeh G, et al. Differential expression of gluconeogenic enzymes in early- and late-stage diabetes: the effect of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad seed extract on hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in Wistar-Albino rats model. Clin Phytosci 2021;7:1-22. [DOI:10.1186/s40816-021-00324-x]

25. Javadzadeh HR, Davoudi A, Davoudi F, Valizadegan G, Goodarzi H, Mahmoodi S, et al. Citrullus colocynthis as the cause of acute rectorrhagia. Case Rep Emerg Med 2013;2013:652192. [DOI:10.1155/2013/652192]

26. Al-Ghaithi F, El-Ridi MR, Adeghate E, Amiri MH. Biochemical effects of Citrullus colocynthis in normal and diabetic rats. Mol Cell Biochem 2004;261:143-9. [ [DOI:10.1023/B:MCBI.0000028749.63101.cc]

27. Moller DE. Potential role of TNF-α in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2000;11:212-7. [DOI:10.1016/S1043-2760(00)00272-1]

28. Tilg H, Moschen AR. Inflammatory mechanisms in the regulation of insulin resistance. Mol Med 2008;14:222-31. [DOI:10.2119/2007-00119.Tilg]

29. Nieto-Vazquez I, Fernández-Veledo S, Krämer DK, Vila-Bedmar R, Garcia-Guerra L, Lorenzo M. Insulin resistance associated to obesity: the link TNF-alpha. Arch Physiol Biochem 2008;114:183-94. [DOI:10.1080/13813450802181047]

30. Bajaj M, Suraamornkul S, Hardies LJ, Pratipanawatr T, DeFronzo RA. Plasma resistin concentration, hepatic fat content, and hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance in pioglitazone-treated type II diabetic patients. Int J Obes 2004;28:783-9. [DOI:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802625]

31. Toescu V, Nuttall S, Martin U, Nightingale P, Kendall M, Brydon P, et al. Changes in plasma lipids and markers of oxidative stress in normal pregnancy and pregnancies complicated by diabetes. Clin Sci 2004;106:93-8. [DOI:10.1042/CS20030175]

32. Ostovan F, Gol A, Javadi A. Investigating the effects of Citrullus colocynthis pulp on oxidative stress in testes and epididymis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats. Int J Reprod Biomed 2017;15:41. [DOI:10.29252/ijrm.15.1.41]

33. Dallak M. In vivo hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of Citrullus colocynthis pulp extract in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Afr J Biotechnol 2011;10:9898-903. [DOI:10.5897/AJB11.268]